So you slept though science class -- Coevolution

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I love when we get to the topic of "co-evolution" in my biology class.  Hitting that point in the semester means we're going to be leaving organ systems (which can definitely be fascinating -- who doesn't want to know how his or her digestive system or immune system work?) and moving into my favorite topic -- ecology!  Co-evolution occurs when two species evolve together, in the same place and at the same time.  Their interspecific interactions influence the direction of that evolution.  Examples include predator/prey interactions that change the genetic make-up of each species.  This video on the evolution of moths and bats is a great example of co-evolution:

Another example of co-evolution is the development of plants and their pollinators.  In fact, there was a recent surprise in the world of evolutionary science, when researchers found evidence of an insect proboscis occurring long before the presence of the flowers hypothesized to force the evolution of this type of mouthpart.  

So why do we care about co-evolution?  Because the interspecific interactions that have evolved over hundreds, thousands, or millions of years are a very finely choreographed dance.  When one species gets out of step, the entire ecosystem could be affected.  A recent article in Science, reports results that many scientists have expected -- changes in our environment due to climate change will not affect species equally and could very well upset the balance between species that have co-evolved.  Some of the species most hardest hit -- insects.  The insects that pollinate our food supply.  This is yet another reason to get involved in climate change policy at the national, state, and local level.

Mammal Monday -- invasive non-native mammals

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We're going in a slightly different direction this week.  Usually on Mammal Monday we look at fascinating or endangered mammals.  But sometimes mammals can be what we call "invasive non-natives."  A recent article in the Morning Ag Clips about feral pigs got me thinking about this topic.  Check out this article, which discusses the issue of feral pigs and proposed solutions. 

If you're not familiar with the term invasive non-native species, here's a quick explanation.  Over thousands of years, species in an ecosystem evolve together.  An example of this "co-evolution" would be insects that begin to come out of winter sleep at about the same time that flowers begin to bloom -- this coordination ensures that the insects get nectar for food and that the plants get pollination.  When these native species evolve together, this type of coordination helps the ecosystem remain healthy.

Sometimes, new species that didn't evolve in the ecosystem are introduced.  These species are considered "non-native."  Here in the Chesapeake Bay region, we often consider any species that was introduced after Europeans arrived in the area (let's say the 1600s) to be a non-native.  Some non-natives stay where they're planted and really don't cause much trouble -- plants such as roses, tomatoes, and tulips are non-natives.  Sure, non-native species may not be the greenest option, since they require more water or fertilizer than natives and often don't provide food sources to native species, but they aren't quite the problem that their cousins the "non-native invasive" are.

Non-native invasive species are plants or animals that are introduced into an ecosystem and quickly begin to outcompete native species.  They may be a predator that eats everything in sight, such as the northern snakehead (see video below), or they could be a plant that outcompetes and kills other plants in the area (check your backyard for English ivy).  Common non-native invasives include house sparrows and kudzu, but there are many, many more.  And these species aren't just an ecological nuisance; they can have major economic impacts.  Kudzu and bamboo can cost homeowners substantial amounts once it gets into their landscaping, and the invasive stink bug has already cost mid-Atlantic apple farmers millions of dollars in crop losses.  The invasive emerald ash borer currently threatens ash trees.  Why is that an issue?  Think about America's past time -- wooden baseball bats are mostly made of ash wood. Zebra mussels were first introduced in the Great Lakes region, but have spread throughout the U.S.  The Missouri Department of Conservation estimates that this small mollusk, responsible for clogging water intake pipes and power plant pipes, fouling boat hulls, and displacing native species, will cost the U.S. billions of dollars by the end of this decade. 

But when we talk about mammal invasive non-natives (and yes, birds and fish too), animal lovers like me start to feel a little agita.  On the one hand, we don't want to allow the ecological damage caused by non-natives, but on the other hand we don't want to see animals hurt or killed, although we know these organisms must be removed to protect native habitat.  So what can a greenmomster do?  First off, never set an unwanted pet (such as a snake or fish) loose into the environment.  Check with a local nature center for proper ways to find them new homes.  Second, try to encourage native plants and animals by choosing native plants for landscaping.  Eradicating non-native species, particularly mammals like the nutria or feral pigs is a tough business.  Prevention is our best, and most humane, weapon against non-native invasive species.

March for Science!

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Yesterday was the big March for Science, where we encouraged our elected officials to use science as a basis for policy decisions -- including environmental policies!  Scientists and science enthusiasts from all disciplines attended.  It was rainy, cold, and lots of fun!  Let's hope we were heard!  Did you attend any of the marches?  How did it go?

So you slept through science class -- Going vegetarian!

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"But how do you get your protein?" That's the most common question people ask when they hear that you're eating vegetarian, vegan, or just cutting back on meat.  This question illustrates two common misconceptions about our diets:

• Most folks assume that they need WAY more protein in their diets than they actually do.  The Federal government's dietary guidelines recommend that an adult should have about 10% of their calories come from protein each day -- that's about 200 calories for most of us.  Examples would be 4 oz. of pork, 5 1/2 tablespoons of peanut butter, or 1 1/2 cups of black beans.  Take a look at these comparisons of what we eat and what is recommended.
• People often assume that the only way to get protein is to eat animal products -- not true!  The molecular building blocks of protein are smaller molecules called amino acids.  There are 21 amino acids needed by your body to make protein (sources cite between 20 and 22 amino acids), and your body can manufacture all but 10 of these amino acids.  These remaining 10 are what we call "essential amino acids" -- you must acquire these amino acids through your diet.  Here's where the confusion lies -- many people think you must eat animal products to have a complete protein.  It turns out, there are plant-based ways to eat all the amino acids in one sitting.  You can eat soy-based protein, or combine certain foods, like rice and beans, to get the proper nutrition.  

Environmentally, you're encouraged to reduce meat consumption.  Whether that's a meat-free Friday, meatless Monday, going vegetarian, or going vegan, the environment thanks you.  If you do decide to go vegan, be sure to supplement with niacin and B vitamins.

Still thinking that meatless will make you weak and they'll be kicking sand in your face at the beach?  Then check out this recent article in the Chicago Tribune about elite athletes who are eating vegan diets.

So you slept through science class -- What's an HFC?

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Last week, I wrote about the big agreement in Rwanda, and I promised to explain HFCs.  So as my German relatives once told me, "versprochen ist versprochen!" (a promise is a promise!)

The part of the atmosphere that humans live in is called the troposphere.  This layer of the atmosphere is about 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, plus water vapor, and many other chemicals including carbon dioxide.  The troposphere plays a major role in weather and climate.  The next layer up is called the stratosphere.  The stratosphere is the part of the atmosphere where we find much less water vapor and we also find the ozone layer that protects us from the sun's UV rays (as opposed to the tropospheric ozone which we commonly call "smog").  We find this ozone layer about 11 to 16 miles above sea level.

Back in the 1970s and 1980s, the global community realized that the ozone layer was thinning, and that humans were a big part of the problem.  We focused in on chemicals called CFCs (chloroflourocarbons) which were commonly used in propellants and coolants.  Thanks to international agreements (Montreal in 1987 and Copenhagen in 1992), we've phased out or controlled the use of the ozone-depleting chemicals.  That's why the person who works on your car air conditioner or your home's heating and AC has to have a special certification for handling freon and other CFCs.

The good news is, we phased out CFCs and are starting to see some recovery of the ozone hole.  The bad news is, we replaced many CFCs with HFCs (hydroflourocarbons), which don't damage the ozone layer, but they do affect global warming -- in a BIG way!  You've probably heard of heat trapping gases such as methane and CO2.  Well, HFCs have over 1000 times the heat trapping potential of CO2!  Thus, the Rwanda agreement.

Here are some interesting facts about greenhouse gases that you might not have known:

• Greenhouse gases are necessary to trap heat on the planet, and they're the reason we can live here.  The problem is not greenhouse gases alone, it's the amount of EXTRA greenhouse gases humans are adding to the atmosphere.
• Water vapor is the most common greenhouse gas in the atmosphere.
• 95% of CO2 in that atmosphere is naturally occurring.  It's that extra 5% that we're adding that's causing the problems.
• Carbon dioxide can last in the atmosphere for 50 to 200 years.  Methane breaks down in about 12 years.  HFCs are similar to methane with a lifespan of about 14 years.  Nitrous oxide lasts over 100 years.
• The atmosphere can store roughly 750 billion tons of carbon without significantly changing Earth's temperature.  When we burn fossil fuels, we add about 7 billion additional tons of carbon to the atmosphere each year.

Want to learn more?  Just search "climate change" for more posts on this topic!

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So you slept through science class -- What's a PCB?

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 PCBs are a group of over 200 chlorine-containing organic compounds that were used between 1929 and 1977.  They're very stable (meaning they don't break down quickly into non-toxic forms), they bioaccumulate, and they're non-flammable.  They were very popular in the past, being used as 

• lubricants,
• hydraulic fluids, 
• insulators, 
• and ingredients in fire retardants, paints, adhesives, and pesticides.

In 1977, the U.S. Congress banned production of these chemicals after research demonstrated that they were carcinogenic (caused cancer) and could cause neurological damage to babies and children. Although these chemicals are no longer produced in the U.S., they remain in our environment.  

Birds of prey, such as ospreys and eagles, are often the species that we think of when we're thinking about chemical contamination of the environment by PCBs, but humans can also be affected.  The Washington Post recently reported on activists pushing for PCB testing in schools.  

Any greenmomsters live in school districts that have tested for PCBs?

A honey of an art exhibit!

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(photo credit:  George Miller)

Scientists often have difficulty explaining scientific concepts to the public.  It's challenging to know one's audience and effectively communicate complex scientific concepts.  This communication is such a challenge, that  Stony Brook College has developed the Alan Alda Center for Communicating Science to help scientists "communicate more directly and personally."

Using art to talk about science is a very effective way to reach people who might not necessarily be interested in science.  I was fortunate to observe this type of communication at a local art opening at the Torpedo Factory Art Center in Alexandria VA this past weekend.  Among many other fascinating pieces, Lisa Schumaier presented her creation, "Habitation of Bees." Ms. Schumaier is a skilled communicator, using her art to share ideas with local audiences.  I first met Ms. Schumaier when my son attended one of her art camps, and witnessed her skill at communicating with students, young and old.

In her latest work, Ms. Schumaier continues to effectively communicate environmental ideas to the public.  The artist's explanation stated that the work "explores bees, highlights their individuality, ingenuity and importance to our world.  The use of entirely recycled materials for the installation hints at our own part in the destruction of the environment that sustains us all."

As a former beekeeper, I found this display beautiful and fascinating.  The tiny bees were each created out of Christmas lights and their hive was made of thousands of pieces of rolled paper carefully glued into place to resemble a beehive or the tunnels of solitary bees.

(photo credit:  George Miller)

(photo credit:  George Miller)

Near this display was a table reminding attendees about the role that bees play in pollination.

(photo credit:  Desiree Di Mauro)

The tiny bees are for sale with the proceeds supporting The Navajo Bee Project.  This program reintroduces beekeeping into the Navajo pastoral economy, where a hive that brings in between $600-$800 worth of income from honey and wax can be a great benefit to this community with an unemployment rate of up to 42%. 

This art exhibit is especially effective, because it uses different methods for communicating to different audiences.  Whether you're a visual arts lover, a foodie, or a philanthopist, there's something here for you.  But here's the take-home lesson, as Ms. Schumaier explained it -- we need to love our bees and pollinators!

(photo credit:  Desiree Di Mauro)

So you slept through science class -- Catch Shares!

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Earlier this year, I introduced "The Tragedy of the Commons" which explains some of the management problems associated with public goods.  One of those public goods is fisheries.  How do we effectively manage our fish resources?

The first question is, why should we care about fisheries?  Aren't there plenty of fish to go around?  According to the UN's Food and Agriculture Organization, about 1/4 of all fish stocks are being exploited at a level that is not sustainable, while over 1/2 of all fish stocks are at the absolute highest sustainable level of harvest.  We have depleted many fisheries and are now moving on to others.  Here's an example -- the tilapia that you often see on restaurant menus wasn't always a popular fish; it only became more popular as other fish stocks became depleted.  Since roughly 1 billion people get their daily protein from fish, this is a big issue.

So yes, we should care about fisheries!  An easy was for the individual consumer to track his or her impact is by using the Seafood Watch app.  From a management standpoint, countries are now trying to use "catch shares" to help fishermen better manage the resource.  It's a single-species, economics-driven management system that holds some promise, by allowing fishermen to determine when and how they fish, but it is not without controversy.  While the environmental community would rather see an ecosystem-level management scheme for fisheries, the current push is for catch shares.  Here's how it works and why fishermen and environmental managers are concerned:

So you slept through science class–What’s “habitat fragmentation”?

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What do you think is the greatest threat to wildlife biodiversity?

• pollution?
• overhunting/overharvesting?
• wildlife poaching?
• habitat destruction?

If you guessed habitat destruction, you were right!  Often, when we think of habitat destruction, we think of clearcutting of forests or mountaintop removal for coal mines, but there’s a much more common type of habitat destruction.  It’s called “habitat fragmentation” or breaking large tracts of habitat into smaller chunks.  Examples include when we divide forest habitat into 5 acre lots for housing development, or when we build roads through wild areas.

Many species can coexist with humans without too much disruption – think of squirrels, crows, robins, hawks, even coyotes. Some species, such as deer, thrive on “edge habitat” – the area where forests meet fields.  But there are many other creatures that need large tracts of undisturbed habitat (often woodlands, but not always) in order to successfully feed and breed.  We often think of large animals, such as bears or wolves, when we think of this type of creature, but many birds only thrive deep in forested areas.

Although setting aside small chunks of habitat is helpful for some creatures, others need much, much more space.  There’s an exciting effort going on right now called Y2Y or Yellowstone to Yukon.  Their vision: “An interconnected system of wild lands and waters stretching from Yellowstone to Yukon, harmonizing the needs of people with those of nature.”  (photo from the Y2Y website).  Although this effort is a huge one, you can do the same where you live – be aware of fragmentation of habitat and encourage preservation of wildlife corridors and large areas of habitat.

So you slept through science class–part 11: What is a watershed?

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I often ask my students, “what is a watershed?”  They immediately focus on the “water” part of the word.  Actually, a “watershed” is about the land; it’s an area of land that drains to a specific waterbody.  My local watershed is the Accotink creek watershed.  If we zoom out, I live in the Chesapeake Bay watershed.  What’s the name of your watershed?

So why is it so important to be familiar with your watershed?  Because, everything that happens on the land, eventually impacts the water.  Let’s take a look at my watershed, the Chesapeake Bay watershed.  This watershed has the largest land to water ratio in the world – 16:1!  Areas from 6 states (about 64,000 square miles) drain into the Chesapeake Bay, and the activities of the 17 million people who live in the watershed directly affect the waters of the Chesapeake Bay.  Every time anyone in the watershed fertilizes his garden, washes her car, drives her car, or salts the sidewalk for ice, it affects the quality of water in the Chesapeake Bay.  The same is true for every watershed.

Learn which watershed you live in using this simple website where you can search using your zipcode.  After you know your watershed, the website can also help you find groups working on water quality issues in your area!

So you slept through science class–what does “anadromous” mean?

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Here’s the next post in our occasional series, “so you slept through science class.”  All those questions about the natural world that you were afraid (or didn’t know) to ask!

It’s spring, so that means that the shad are running in the Potomac river!    Shad are an anadromous fish in the Chesapeake Bay region -- so what does anadromous mean?  Salmon are the poster children for anadromous fish that most folks know – they live their adult lives in saltwater and migrate to freshwater to spawn (breed).  Other than the obvious environmental challenges of switching from a saltwater to a freshwater environment, man-made environmental challenges also exist for these fish.  Challenges for these fish include dams, which create barriers for the fish as they try to move upstream.  According to NOAA, over 5,000 miles of fish habitat are currently blocked in the Chesapeake Bay area!   In 2005, the Chesapeake Bay Program initiated a program to complete 100 fish passages or dam removals by 2014.  That means that 1,000 new miles of fish habitat is now available to migrating fish! 

The opposite of anadromous fish is “catadromous” fish, or fish that live in freshwater, but migrate to saltwater to breed.  In the Chesapeake Bay area, we’re talking eels!

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So you slept through science class part 10–What’s an “invasive non-native”?

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In previous posts we’ve talked about ecosystems and the role that each species plays in an ecosystem.  Over thousands of years, species in an ecosystem evolve together.   An example of this “co-evolution” would be insects that begin to come out of winter sleep at about the same time that flowers begin to bloom – this coordination ensures that the insects get nectar for food and that the plants get pollination.   When these native species evolve together, this type of coordination helps the ecosystem to remain healthy. 

Sometimes, new species that didn’t evolve in the ecosystem are introduced.  These species would be considered non-native.  Here in the Chesapeake Bay region, we often consider any species that was introduced after Europeans arrived in the area (let’s say the 1600s) to be a non-native.  Some non-natives stay where they’re planted and really don’t cause much trouble – plants such as roses, tomatoes, or tulips are non-natives.  Sure, non-native species may not be the greenest option, since they require more water or fertilizer than natives, but they aren’t quite the problem that their cousins the “non-native invasive” are.

Non-native invasive species are plants or animals that are introduced into an ecosystem and quickly begin to outcompete native species.  They may be a predator that eats everything in sight, such as the northern snakehead (photo credit Virginia Department of Game and Inland fisheries), or they could be a plant that outcompetes and kills other plants in the area (check your backyard for English ivy…).  Common non-native invasives include house sparrows and kudzu, but there are many, many more.  And these species aren’t just an ecological nuisance, they can have major economic impacts too.  Kudzu can costs homeowners substantial amounts once it gets into their landscaping (think herbicides).   Zebra mussels were first introduced in the Great Lakes region, but have spread throughout the U.S.  The Missouri Department of Conservation estimates that this small mollusk, responsible for clogging water intake pipes and power plant pipes, fouling boat hulls, and displacing native species, will cost the U.S. billions of dollars by the end of this decade.  Another species that has the potential to do serious economic damage is the emerald ash borer, which kills ash trees.  If you like baseball, you should be concerned, because wood baseball bats are made from ash.  Check out this video about the tiny invader:   Good news though,  birds may be helping with reducing this insect species.

So how can a greenmomster help?  There are two easy ways to be part of the solution.  Since one of the best ways to limit the negative effects of non-natives is to prevent their establishment in new ecosystems, greenmomsters can:

1. Try to choose native plants for landscaping
2. Never set an unwanted pet (such as a snake) loose into the environment.  Check with a local nature center for proper ways to find them new homes.

 

Source:

Conservation Commission of Missouri.  2014.  “Zebra Mussel Control” Missouri Department of Conservation website.  Accessed 1/19/2014 at http://mdc.mo.gov/your-property/problem-plants-and-animals/invasive-animals/zebra-mussel-control

So you slept through science class, part 8–How do ecologists get those numbers?

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Here in greenmomster’s science class, we’ve covered many topics including endangered species, wildlife corridors, and biodiversity, but you may be wondering, “how do environmental managers come up with the numbers on which their decisions are based?”  It turns out, there are many ways to calculate the size or activity of a population of organisms:

• If the organisms are relatively still, like oysters or dandelions, scientists will often use a “quadrat” or a sample area like a circle or square to estimate the number of individuals in a larger area.  First, you lay down the quadrat.  Next, you count the number of individuals in the quadrat.  Repeat this procedure several times, and then do the calculation to get your estimate for a larger area.
• If the organisms have a tendency to move, sometimes scientists will conduct “mark-recapture” surveys.  Let’s say they want to know how many box turtles are in an area.  First the scientists set out traps to catch the box turtles.  Then they mark the turtles they caught and set them free.  When the scientist later catches more turtles, he or she checks to see whether the turtles are marked.  That info (number of marked vs. number of unmarked) goes into a calculation to determine the population size.
• Another way to count individuals and determine any change over time is to walk a line or transect through an area over the course of a week, month, year, or longer.  As the scientist walks along, he or she counts each individual of a species that is seen within a set distance (maybe 15 feet).   Repeating this procedure over a long time can possibly tell a scientist if a change in population size is occurring over time or between different locations.  I used this method when studying butterflies in butterfly gardens.  My butterfly watching volunteers and I walked transects through over 100 gardens, once per week, for six months during each of two years – it gave us a great idea of which butterfly gardens attracted the most butterflies and which types of butterflies they attracted.

There are so many ways to calculate population sizes!  What about when the individuals aren’t very visible, like underwater animals?  There’s some fascinating work that’s been done on whales to determine where they go and what they do when they’re underwater – check out this video from Science Friday.
And what’s a scientist to do, if there aren’t any formally gathered data to be found?  A recent study reported on in the the Fall 2013 issue of dukenvironment magazine showed that even antique menus can be helpful clues in determining historic fish stocks.  The researchers took a look at the types of fish that were found on menus from restaurants in Hawaii in the early and mid-1900s:  “The team’s analysis of 376 menus from 154 different restaurants showed that near-shore species such as reef fish, jacks and bottom fish, for example were common on Hawaiian menus before 1940, but by its statehood in 1959, they appeared collectively on less than 10 percent of menus sampled.  Restaurants began shifting to serving large pelagic species, such as tuna and swordfish.  By 1970, 95 percent of the menus contained large pelagics; inshore fish had all but disappeared.”  The team then went on to try to come up with reasons for the shift – population? taste? technology?  So creative!
Could you be part of a scientific study?  You bet!  Many scientific studies that gather information on populations use “citizens scientists”.  If you’re interested in getting involved, check out these interesting programs:

• Monarch Watch allows you to help count monarchs and track their North American migration
• Project Feeder Watch allows you to help count birds that visit your backyard feeders during the winter
• The Xerces Society has several opportunities for you to help monitor populations of dragonflies
• You can help the USGS monitor frogs in your area

Now that you know the basics, you’re ready to help!  Not only do scientists have to be technically strong to solve today’s environmental challenges, they also have to be creative, and who’s more creative than a greenmomster?
Sources:
“Seafood Menus reflect long-term ocean changes.”  Fall 2013.  dukenvironment. p 12.

So you slept through science class, part 7–healthy streams…..

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Many of you have been following our family’s stream monitoring adventures and know that the streams in our area are not particularly healthy.  Several readers have been asking me why the streams are in the shape they’re in.  Urban streams are often “sick” for a number of reasons, including nitrogen and phosphorous runoff, the speed of the water moving through the streams (which increases erosion and decreases the soil’s natural filtering of pollutants), temperature changes in the water, and various toxic pollutants.  Here’s a  short, informative video from a division of NBC that does a nice job of explaining some of the threats to our local urban and suburban waterways: 

So you slept through science class, part 6–Wildlife Corridors

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During our last science class, we talked about biodiversity and why it matters for the health of ecosystems.  So what’s the real-world application?  Well, it turns out that in order to maintain diversity, we not only want to maintain it at a species level, we also want to maintain diversity at a genetic level.  Within a population of individuals of a species, scientists and wildlife managers hope to see LOTS of diversity at a genetic level, in the individuals’ genes.  Think about it – if every plant or animal in an ecosystem has the exact same genetic make-up, that ecosystem will be pretty vulnerable if a disease sweeps through.  If the individuals in a population have some diversity in their genetic make-up, though, perhaps a few of them will have the genetic where-with-all to survive a disease outbreak.
The problem in today’s world of over 7 billion people is that humans are encroaching on most natural populations of plants and animals and locking them into specific geographic areas.  Animals and plants need to be able to breed with many other individuals in order to keep the genetic diversity of a population rich.  Think about it – where would you expect to see more genetic diversity in humans:

• in a small town of 500 people who only intermarry with one another?
• in a larger area of 1500 people, including immigrants from other towns, all of whom intermarry?

Obviously, the second town is going to have more diversity in its genes.  It’s the same for other animals – the more they can mix, the more diversity in the gene pool.  But many populations are what we call “geographically” isolated – they’re separated from one another by roads, housing developments, agricultural development, clear-cutting.  It’s a real challenge for wildlife managers trying to maintain genetic diversity AND help to prepare populations for possible migrations necessary because of climate change.
“Wildlife corridors” are one possible solution to this problem.  By preserving large or small (depending on the size of the animal) swaths of wild lands, conservation managers hope to help populations interbreed and remain healthier.  One example you might have seen in the news is the Yellowstone to Yukon corridor (Y2Y).  This project is an ambitious attempt on the part of environmentalists, state and federal officials, and private landowners to maintain corridors to allow interbreeding for species large (grizzlies) and small (ocelot).  The project is not complete, but is a fascinating example of the efforts of folks dedicated to protecting our environment.
If you’d like to read more about the Y2Y corridor, be sure to check out these books, and be sure to support the Y2Y Corridor:
The Spine of the Continent, by Mary Ellen Hannibal.  2012.  Glove Pequot Press, Guilford CT.  248pp.  This book tells the stories of individuals involved in the Y2Y effort, giving the reader an interesting look at the personalities and debates behind the conservation and ecological theory supporting corridors.
Yellowstone to Yukon, Freedom to Roam, by Florian Schulz.  2005.  The Mountaineers Books.  196 pp.  I had the pleasure of meeting Florian Schultz at a National Geographic presentation on the making of this spectacular book of photographs.  Mr. Schultz’s dedication and enthusiasm for this cause is infectious.  He wrote a note to my children in our book that illustrates his enthusiasm:  “When I was a boy I played in the forest stalking after wildlife.  I hear you also love wild animals like wolves.  I just saw a whole pack and photographed them last year.  It is so exciting!”

So you slept through science class, part 5–Biodiversity!

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We often hear about protecting “biodiversity,” but what does that term really mean?  Biodiversity is the way that scientists determine which species are found in ecosystems.  The scientists try to answer two questions:

1. How many different species are in this particular ecosystem?
2. What is the relative abundance of the species found in the ecosystem?

So let’s start with the basics – what is a species?  A species is a group of organisms able to breed successfully and produce fertile offspring over several generations.  Dogs are a species; monarch butterflies are a species; willow oak trees are a species. 

When scientists want to determine the biodiversity in an ecosystem, the first number they need is the number of species.  Many methods exist for counting species.  In the case of plants, scientists can count the number of different species in a set area (1 meter square; 1 mile square) and perhaps extrapolate the number out to a large area, depending on the distribution of the plants.  Since animals can move around, methods for counting them are a little different.  For animals that live in the open, like the arctic, herds of animals can be counted from planes.  I counted butterflies for my dissertation by walking “transects” or paths to count individuals.  More “shy” animals, might be caught and recaptured to calculate a species number.

The second step in the process of determining biodiversity is figuring out the relative abundance of the various species.   Two forest stands with 100 trees of 5 different species don’t necessarily have the same relative abundance.  One forest stand could have 96 trees of species 1, and 1 tree each of species 2,3,4, and 5, and have very different relative abundance from the other forest stand with 20 trees of each species. 

Once scientists have both species numbers and relative abundance, they combine these numbers to determine biodiversity.  What’s the goal?  In biological conservation, the healthiest ecosystems are considered the ones with the greatest biodiversity.  This biodiversity is said to give the ecosystem the best resilience to change and shocks.  Just like the old adage says, “Don’t put all your eggs in one basket,” a diverse assortment of species helps to sustain life in an ecosystem.  Do we expect all ecosystems to have the same biodiversity?  No.  Tropical ecosystems and aquatic ecosystems, such as coral reefs, have very high biodiversity, while others have fewer species.  Just as we greenmomsters try to maximize the individual potential of each of our kids, the conservation goal in ecosystems is to see each one maximize its expected biodiversity.

So there it is, biodiversity in a nutshell.  Next science class, we’ll talk about how land managers are trying to apply this concept in the real world.

So you slept through science class, part 4–Why do the leaves change color in the fall?

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It’s one of the most beautiful times of year – the leaves are turning spectacular colors (especially if you live in New England) and there’s a little chill in the air.  So the environmental science question of the day is one that you might know the answer to, or maybe your kids asked you and you didn’t know the answer:  Why do the leaves change color in the fall?  If you’d like to give a better answer than, “the trees are going to sleep for the winter,”  it’s pretty simple if you remember a few little facts.

• Leaves, like all living matter, are made up of cells.  Cells are made of molecules.
• Inside of the cells of leaves are pigment molecules that capture light energy to turn into food for the tree.
• Different pigments capture different wavelengths of light.
• The pigment molecule that gives trees their green color is called “chlorophyll.”  But there are other pigment molecules helping to trap other wavelengths of light – we just don’t see them, because they’re dominated by chlorophyll.
• Trees have to actively produce chlorophyll throughout the growing season; this production takes energy.
• As day length decreases in the fall, trees stop making chlorophyll (it’s kind of the tree’s own cost/benefit analysis).  The molecule breaks down and the other pigments that have been in the leaves all along become visible!

Want a more detailed explanation of our fall foliage fireworks?  Check out this great U.S. Forest Service website!

So you slept through science class, part 3–Climate Change!

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You keep hearing about climate change, but you don’t know what to think.  All these “hundred year storms” – what’s the cause?  Is climate change actually happening?  Is it man-made or naturally-caused?  Are the estimates correct?

Well, you know my answer to those questions, but maybe you’d like to dive into the science.  Here’s your chance to take a short course on the science of climate change.  The National Environmental Education Foundation (NEEF) and the American Meteorological Society (AMS) have produced a series of courses on climate change.  The first course is longer and gives you a great overview of the entire issue.  After that, you can view 3 different, 15-minute modules on climate change and sea level rise, climate change and extreme weather, and climate change and regional impacts.  These courses are very thorough!  Go to EarthGauge for more information.

Greenmomsters, you owe it to your kids to get up-to-speed on this scientific information.  Learn the science; spring into action!

To fleece or not to fleece!

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I found this discussion on the pros and cons of fleece in the September/October 2012 issue of Sierra.   It’s a terrific example of the trade-offs and choices we need to make daily.  Remembering that the results of all of our actions flow outward like water rings in a pond, Greenmomsters have to decide what works for them and then make decisions based on the available scientific information.  The process can be frustrating at times, but it’s our responsibility to think about our impact on the environment.  There won’t always be clear-cut answers, but if you’re giving these issues some thought, you’re part of the solution!  To fleece or not to fleece, that’s the question for you to answer!

The following article and image are from Sierra (September/October 2012, p. 20, article by Dashka Slater):

ON THE ONE HAND . . .

Ah, fleece--it's insulating, it's quick drying, and it can be made of recycled materials, plus it gives even prickly environmentalists a soft, pettable exterior. Vegans like it because it doesn't come from animals, backpackers like it because it can weigh less than wool, and tree huggers like it because it gives old pop bottles something to do. Patagonia, which began making polyester fleece garments from recycled plastic soda bottles in 1993, estimates that in its first 13 years of turning garbage into garments, it diverted 86 million soda bottles from landfills.

ON THE OTHER . . .

Every time you wash that cuddly fleece jacket, tiny plastic particles trickle down the drain and into the ocean. A study published in the journal Environmental Science and Technology found that a single polyester garment can shed more than 1,900 fibers on its trip through the washing machine. Those fibers sail through sewage treatment plants and settle along coastlines. When researchers sifted through sand collected from 18 beaches on six continents, they found acrylic and polyester fibers in every sample. The fibers get eaten by mollusks and then move up the food chain with potentially toxic results.

5 Reasons Seahorses are Cooler than Thoroughbreds

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This week’s Endangered Species of the Week is the greenmomster’s first fish – the seahorse (photo from animals.nationalgeographic.com)!  There are approximately 48 species of seahorse, one-quarter of which are threatened with extinction.  Seahorses live in shallow tropical and temperate waters around the world.  Although they’re not good swimmers, these tiny fish (from 1/2 inch to more than a foot long) can manage to eat up to 3,000 brine shrimp per day.  Seahorses use camouflage for protection and can anchor themselves to plants and coral by holding on with their tails.  Seahorses’ main threats to survival include overharvest for both the Asian medicine and aquarium trade, loss of habitat, and loss by by-catch (non-target fish captured in fishing nets).  Scientists and conservationists around the world are working hard to protect sea horses with innovative programs.  Project Seahorse is one organization trying to protect seahorses by saving seahorses directly, protecting the world’s shallow seas, cleaning up fisheries, making the fish trade sustainable, and training conservationists.   Scientists are also trying to develop captive breeding programs for seahorses – a very tricky task indeed.

So they’re fun to look at, but why do we really need to conserve seahorses?  Here’s your answer from Wildlife Heroes, by Scardina and Flocken:  “Seahorses’ unique reproductive behaviors could offer valuable insight into reproductive ecology.  Additionally, seahorses are predator fish that prey on bottom-dwelling organisms – removal of the species from their habitat could disrupt the ecosystem balance.”

And now, 5 reasons seahorses are cooler than thoroughbreds (see also 5 reasons Przewalski’s horses are cooler than thoroughbreds):

1. I’ve never fallen off a seahorse
2. Seahorse males carry and give birth to the live young
3. Seahorses are are monogamous
4. Seahorses use their tails for more than just swatting flies
5. Seahorses can breath underwater